Jim's Film Website: film Guide
A Basic Guide to Film
how visual and sound design enhance drama
(PLEASE NOTE: later sections are in DRAFT form)
- Part 1: Dramatics – What Do We Feel?
- Part 2: Visuals – What Do We See?
- Part 3: Sound – What Do We Hear?
- Part 4: Theme – What Do We Think?
- Recommended Books
Welcome! This Basic Guide to Film is intended for a general audience interested in how a motion picture works, that is, how image and sound convey emotions and ideas.
These basic principles apply to all types of pictures – fictional (ranging from Hollywood blockbusters to independent works), documentary, animated, even experimental – whether celluloid, video, or digital. While we all talk about a film's story and characters, this guide also provides a common vocabulary for discussing visual and sound design, which can sometimes be as dramatic as the action. For an example of this guide 'in action,' see the analysis of a scene from Hitchcock's Strangers on a Train.
Let's start with a film's story...
Part 1. Dramatics — What Do We Feel?
- Genre
- Dramatic Structure
- Characters & Acting Styles
- Film Structure – Shot / Scene / Sequence
- "The Big Picture" – All the Elements Working Together
A. Genre
Film, as a dramatic form, is about people and their conflicts, but it encompasses image, movement and sound as much as performance and story. In essence, film is about emotion — our individual feelings which evolve during, and after, we watch a picture, as well as how those feelings connect with the ideas expressed. A key question is, What does a film make, or allow, us to feel?
One basic way in which we experience a picture is its, and our, relationship to other films of the same type or genre, e.g., Comedy, Musical, Science Fiction, Western, et al. (take a look at my "10 Best Films" lists for many genres) .
- Genre provides a reference point for the audience, who will likely have seen similar types of film, and so has some basis for comparison, e.g., would Robert Altman's M*A*S*H (1970) have been as funny, or powerful, if it hadn't been preceded by 70 years of less irreverent War films?
- Broader context: What are the references we expect but are denied, e.g., if you see a Western you expect a hero, but what if there is no hero — only psychological and moral ambiguity (as in John Ford's 1956 The Searchers)? This impacts our emotional response.
- Has the genre been expanded, e.g., psychologically, dramatically, or visually?
B. Dramatic Structure
Fundamental/ Mythic Structure
Historian Joseph Campbell's book about mythology, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, is – paradoxically – one of the most influential books in the movie industry. Campbell isolates the single fundamental structure of all the world's major myths, which has also served as the basis for dramatic structure in fiction and film. You will see that Campbell's pattern applies equally to comedy, drama, and even "non-fiction" (documentaries have dramatic form too):
- The hero is introduced in the ordinary world, where
- s/he receives the call to adventure.
- S/he is reluctant at first but is encouraged by a wise old man or woman to cross
- the first threshold, where s/he encounters various
- tests and helpers.
- S/he at last reaches the innermost cave, and must endure
- the supreme ordeal.
- S/he seizes the sword or treasure but is
- pursued by terrible forces on the road back home and almost dies.
- S/he is resurrected and transformed by this experience.
- S/he returns home with a treasure, boon, or elixir to benefit the world.
Classic Dramatic Structure
Classic five-act dramatic form was advocated by Aristotle in his Poetics 2,500 years ago, with its unities of time and place, and realized in works like Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet or Moliere's comedy The Misanthrope. Each of the five acts revolves around a specific part in the drama's evolution: I. introducing the characters and themes, II. rising action/complications, III. climax/reversal, IV. falling action/reversals, V. resolution, also called the denouement (a wonderful French word that literally means 'taking apart a knot' — this connects with the word 'text,' from the same Latin root as 'textile,' a whole cloth woven together from constituent strands. So, a dramatic text's complications are resolved when the plot knots, at last, are untied: How revealing etymology can be, eh).
Screenplay Structure
A film script features all of the structural elements of the traditional five-act drama, but divides them into three parts, referred to in the industry as "three-act structure":
- Act I (Exposition) — parallels points 1 through 3 in Campbell (above)
- Act II (Rising Action and Climax) — parallels points 4 through 8 in Campbell
- Act III (Resolution)
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parallels points 9 through 11 in Campbell
In practice, Acts I and III are relatively brief, while Act II comprises half the length of most films (which leads some people to talk – confusingly – about the "first part of Act II" and the "second part of Act II"). I prefer the following structural approach, suggested by Syd Field in his excellent study, Screenplay. "Pivots" hurl the action into unexpected, yet dramatically consistent, directions. The following assumes the industry standard of one screenplay page equals one minute of screen time, so a typical two-hour film's script is 120 pages long:
Screenplay Structure –also compared to Campbell's Mythic Form |
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Act I (Exposition)
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Act I (Exposition)
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Compare to Mythic Form1. The hero is introduced in the ordinary world, where |
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Act II (Rising Action and Climax)
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Act II (Rising Action and Climax)
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Compare to Mythic Form4. [S/he crosses] the first threshold, where s/he encounters various |
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Act III (Resolution)
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Act III (Resolution)
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Compare to Mythic Form9. [S/he is] pursued by terrible forces on the road back home and almost dies. |
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Within a Scene – Dramatic "Beats"
- Beats refer to specific changes in character/action within a scene. EXAMPLE: In a (melodramatic) scene, two people come together (Beat 1), they grow more romantic (Beat 2), then a shocking detail is revealed (Beat 3), which leads to violence (Beat 4) and their running away from each other (Beat 5)
- Beats tell you:
- When to cut
- When to move the camera
- When to use contrast or affinity (SEE BELOW – Section E)
C. Characters & Acting Styles
Archetypal Characters
Here are the most basic types of characters; you will find them in most films, regardless of genre, from comedy to drama to (although often in subtle form) documentary:
- Protagonist (also may have a Secondary Protagonist)
- Antagonist (also may have a Secondary Antagonist)
- Guardian (or Guide)
- Skeptic
- Emotion
- Reason
- Sidekick
- Ambiguity (Friend or Foe?)
EXAMPLE: Star Wars (Lucas / 1977) again provides an excellent illustration: Protagonist (Luke Skywalker), Secondary Protagonist (Princess Leia), Antagonist (Darth Vader), Secondary Antagonist (Grand Moff Tarkin), Guardian/Guide (Ben Kenobi), Skeptic (Han Solo), Emotion (Chewbacca), Reason (C3PO), Sidekick (R2D2); also common is a figure of Ambiguity (Friend or Foe?) (suggested by Han Solo – although no character exactly fits this archetype).
Acting: "realistic" vs. "stylized"
Some believe that different performance styles caused cinematic style to change. Although that approach seems overly simplistic, here are the three main types of acting seen in the 20th century:
- Silent film to 1940s: large expressive gestures, similar to theatre
- 1950s: "method acting" (Brando in On the Waterfront) led to more "realism" in film
- 1970s to today: "natural" acting led to more "natural" types of films
Performance is augmented by the design of costumes and makeup. They basically parallel acting styles, with heavy theatrical accoutrements in the silent era giving way to increasing verisimilitude – even in Science Fiction, with Star Wars being perhaps the first film of its genre to show us a dirty, messy, lived-in universe instead of the sleek perfection of 2001: A Space Odyssey.
NOTE: Other fundamentals of cinematic design – art direction and set design – are covered below under Visuals.
D. Film Structure – Shot / Scene / Sequence / Type of Shooting
Shot / Scene / Sequence
- Shot – a continuously exposed piece of film, or a continuous view presented between one cut and another
- Scene – usually consists of more than one shot, and a full-fledged dramatic encounter in one location. Coverage is the traditional approach to filming a scene, with the same action "covered" from four different perspectives; this allows flexibility in editing. The four basics are:
- Master Shot – shows the entire scene
- Two-shot – two characters talking
- Over the Shoulder Shot – angle on the character addressed, taken from just behind the other character
- Close-up – only the face, which fills the screen
- Sequence – a consecutive series of shots and/or scenes not restricted to a single location
Shooting: Continuous or Fragmentary
- Continuous Shooting – no cuts
- Preserves real time
- Allows natural rhythm of the performance
- Can create tension, since there is no 'escape'
- Fragmentary Shooting – uses cuts
- Allows contrast from shot to shot, in image, rhythm, etc.
- In shot to shot editing, contrast or affinity (discussed directly below) more powerful than in a continuous shot
E. "The Big Picture"
BASIC PRINCIPLE: Visual Structure Enhances Dramatic Structure
All of a film's visual elements – line, shape, tone (black & white) or color, movement – can be structured to enhance its total dramatic, emotional and thematic effect.
Principle of Contrast & Affinity
This principle is essential in visuals and sound, as well as dramatic structure.
- Contrast – e.g., closed to open; non-ambiguous to ambiguous; etc.
- Visuals and Sound: developed from shot to shot and/or within a single shot
- Dramatic Structure: e.g., comedy to horror within a scene
- Affinity – e.g., open to open; non-ambiguous to non-ambiguous; etc.
- Visuals and Sound: consistency from shot to shot and/or within a single shot
- Dramatic Structure: e.g., a comic scene remains comic; a horrific scene remains terrifying
"The Big Picture" – Stylistic and Dramatic Unity
All of the elements within a film – from dramatic structure to visual and sound design – should work together to create a unified effect, even as those elements develop in parallel to the plot.
Parallel Narrative and Visual Structure
- Consider the spatial qualities at any given moment, to control the visual intensity as you can control the dramatic elements. EXAMPLE: As dramatic intensity of the narrative builds, the film moves from, say, flat and non-ambiguous space to deep and ambiguous space (SEE BELOW – Part 2 / Section 6)
- Control all components of a film, but only take a few of them through changes
Visual Structure Intensifies Dramatic Structure
Externalize characters' internal changes, through all aspects of dramatic structure, visual and sound design.
- Reduction of visual components
- How few elements in a frame – objects and their placements – can still communicate the necessary emotions and ideas?
- Simplicity and focus eliminate confusion for the audience
- Types of change
- Change within the shot, e.g., color changes
- Change within the object, e.g., appearance of character evolves in parallel to their psychological change; intensity builds
- Drama
of everyday things
- Costumes are drama, not just clothing; likewise, sets and props are also drama
top || Dramatics | Visuals | Sound | Theme
Part 2. Visuals — What Do We See?
- Technology – Briefest Possible Overview
- Screen Formats (Aspect Ratios)
- Surface Divisions of the Frame
- Line
- Shape
- Space
- Tone (Gray Scale)
- Color
- Movement
- Time, Editing & Rhythm
A. Technology – Briefest Possible Overview
BASIC CRITERIA: I am greatly limiting the vast amount of technological information related to film to make this guide as concise and "user friendly" as possible. If you can SEE the aesthetic result of a particular piece of technology on screen (e.g., lenses, lighting) I will discuss it; if you can NOT (e.g., types of cameras, film emulsions, light measuring tools, sound-recording devices, film processing and printing, editing equipment, etc.) it's omitted. For an excellent overview of the technological, and all, aspects of cinema, see James Monaco's How to Read a Film.
FUNDAMENTALS OF FILMING AND PROJECTION: Motion pictures are made on flexible, light-sensitive film stock which is moved past the lens of a camera at a rate of 24 frames (or images) per second. Each frame is briefly exposed to light in the camera's gate as a shutter opens and closes. Later this basic procedure is reversed when the completed film is shown, again at 24 frames per second, through a projector's lens which directs light back through it and onto a screen.
- Lenses
- wide, e.g., 28 mm – more than the human eye could see, gives a distorted, rounded ("fisheye") perspective
- normal, e.g., 50 mm – what the human eye would see
- long (telephoto), e.g., 135 mm – shot from far away, isolates just the central figure(s) while blurring the background
- lenses & cinema history: as technology advanced and lenses became "faster" (needing less light), equipment became more lightweight and mobile. This allowed for quicker, and more economical shooting, and opened the way for independent filmmaking (i.e., outside of the studio system)
- Lighting
- key – main light
- fill – 45o angle to subject, separates it from background
- "obie" – tiny light, often used to highlight eyes
- source – natural light, such as sunlight coming through a window
B. Screen Formats ("Aspect Ratios")
Film exists within a frame. Its shape is determined by the film stock – 35mm celluloid for professional productions – used to shoot the picture. As you can see below, it is possible to "mask" the same 35mm film stock into different shapes or "aspect ratios," a term which refers to the ratio of height to width. The four most common aspect ratios are 1:1.33, 1:1.66, 1:1.85, or 1:2.35.
1.33 ("Academy aperture") – also the shape of most older TV screens.
- All films were shot in 1.33 before 1952, when the rapid growth of television forced the movie industry to adopt dramatically wider formats to lure patrons back into theaters.
- All films were shot in 1.33 before 1952, when the rapid growth of television forced the movie industry to adopt dramatically wider formats to lure patrons back into theaters.
- 1.66 (European widescreen)
- 1.85 (American widescreen)
- Both 1.66 and 1.85 are shot on 1.33 film stock, with the top and bottom of the frame masked off.
- Both 1.66 and 1.85 are shot on 1.33 film stock, with the top and bottom of the frame masked off.
- 2.35 (Anamorphic / Cinemascope)
- 2.35 is also shot on 1.33 film stock but "squeezed" in the camera, then "un-squeezed" on the projector by using a special lens. If you've ever been at the movies and seen the actors look like stick figures, it's because the projectionist mistakenly used a standard lens instead of the special anamorphic one.
Always see a film in its original aspect ratio, as it was designed and shot. When you watch a "pan & scan" or "cropped" version of a widescreen release, you are missing up to half the picture, and seeing a "butchered" version of what the filmmakers' intended. (A hilarious example of a "cropped" print I saw once was Wyler's Ben-Hur: with the "scanner" stuck in the middle of the widescreen frame, during a lengthy dialogue scene all you could see were the tips of two opposing noses – Charlton Heston's was on the extreme right.)
C. Surface Divisions of the Frame
- Purposes
- draws audience's attention to what is most important
- emphasizes or contrasts relationships between objects
- shape of frame may be inappropriate
- Planes
- foreground - action just in front of the camera
- midground - there are often several layers of midground planes
- background
- Ways to divide frame
- halves
- thirds
- grid/ quarters
- 'square on a rectangle'
D. Line
- Types of lines
- contour (boundaries of 3-D surfaces)
- track (path of a moving object)
- actual tracks
- virtual tracks
- transfer of motion (looks like object moving, but only camera moving)
- intersection of two planes
- edge (boundaries of 2-D surfaces)
- imitation through distance (as certain kinds of objects get further away from us, they tend to reduce themselves to lines)
- closure (the mind 'fills in' lines)
- axis (imaginary line our mind 'draws through' objects)
- Contrast and affinity in relation to line
- direction of line
- horizontal
- vertical (these two provide maximum contrast)
- diagonal
- quality (character) of line
- straight
- curved
- visual dynamic (intensity) of line (all lines have a visual dynamic of their own)
- diagonal line (most visually dynamic)
- intensity
- movement
- emotional impact
- diagonal line (most visually dynamic)
- direction of line
E. Shape
Basic shapes
- used to make up all other shapes
- retain their basic shape qualitie no matter how we turn them (in space)
- Basic "silhouette" (shape) of objects
- primary lines (lines we notice first; usually outlines)
- in-lines (lines contained within the outline)
- Basic shapes: 2-D
- square
- circle
- triangle
- Basic shapes: 3-D
- cube
- sphere
- pyramid
- Nature and emotional characteristic of line (in shape)
- diagonal (stern, intense, inorganic)
- curve (soft, loose, organic)
- round (cute, soft, non-aggressive)
- triangle (dynamic, dangerous)
- square (dull, lacking direction)
- BASIC PRINCIPLE: Contrast and affinity in relation to shape
- Maximum contrast of shape
- Types of Contrast of Shape
- circle and pyramid
- sphere and triangle
- 2-D vs. 3-D
- maximum contrast of line qualities
- Effect of Contrast of Shape
- reduces monotony
- distinguishes characters/ objects
- can deceive audience (go against expectations)
- Types of Contrast of Shape
- Maximum Similarity of Shape
- circle (totally undynamic) and square (equal/passive)
- Maximum contrast of shape
F. Space – 6 Basic Types
- BASIC PRINCIPLE: Space is used to create the illusion of three dimensions in the two-dimensional medium of film
- size constancy
- movement
- object movement (parallel to picture plane or perpendicular to picture plane)
- camera movement
- dollying/trucking in and/or out
- craning
- dollying left and/or right
- convergence (one point, two point, three point)
- tonal separation
- overlap
- up/down convention
- up: higher/farther away
- down: lower/closer
- aerial diffusion
- color separation
- 'warm': close
- 'cool': distant
- textural diffusion
- shape constancy
- frontal: 2-D
- longitudinal: 3-D
- BASIC PRINCIPLE: Contrast and affinity in relation to space
- Contrast (e.g., closed to open; non-ambiguous to ambiguous)
- from shot to shot
- within a single shot
- Affinity (e.g., open to open; non-ambiguous to non-ambiguous)
- from shot to shot
- within a single shot
- Contrast (e.g., closed to open; non-ambiguous to ambiguous)
1. Deep Space
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2. Flat Space
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3. Ambiguous Space
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4. Limited Space
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5. Closed Space
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6. Open Space
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Citizen Kane (Welles / 1941)
Othello (Welles / 1952)
The Passion of Joan of Arc (Dreyer / 1928)
Beauty and the Beast (Cocteau / 1946)
Intolerance (Griffith / 1916)
Battleship Potemkin (Eisenstein / 1925)G. Tone (Gray Scale) – Black & White and Shades of Gray
- Tone – black & white and shades of gray (the gray scale) [also a component of color, i.e., brightness]
- contrast and affinity
- maximum. contrast: black & white
- maximum affinity: any 2 or 3 grays next to each other on gray scale
- brightness or darkness of objects in scene
- two lighting schemes: to talk about brightest object in frame and subject of the shot
- coincident/ non-coincident lighting scheme
- coincidence of tone (subject coincides with brightest object)
- non-coincidence of tone (something besides subject is brightest object; gives silhouette effect)
- incident/ reflected lighting scheme
- incident lighting (gray scale rendering of objects stands for the actual gray tone of the object itself, i.e., control of tone from use of actual objects – for dark tone, use dark objects)
- reflected lighting (gray scale controlled by amount of light falling on the object, e..g., stripes from light falling through 1/2 open venetian blinds)
- coincident/ non-coincident lighting scheme
- shadows
- cast (not on object)
- attached (on object)
- contrast and affinity
- How to Control Tone
- control amount of light and brightness of objects in frame
- maximum contrast (non-coincidence of tone): white people in white clothes in black room, with night outside
- maximum affinity (coincidence of tone): white people in white clothes
- control amount of light and brightness of objects in frame
H. Color
Color Mixing – two basic systems used in filmmaking - see DIAGRAM at right
- CMYK Color Model (Cyan / Magenta / Yellow / Black) – subtractive system (mixing paint or dye – where 95% of color control for film comes from)
- CMYK primaries
- cyan
- magenta
- yellow
- CMYK mixing primaries
- yellow & magenta (red)
- magenta & cyan (blue)
- cyan & yellow (green)
- CMYK primaries
- RGB Color Model (Red / Green / Blue) – additive system (mixing colored light – usually in theatrical lighting or color TV picture tube)
- RGB primaries
- red
- green
- blue
- RGB mixing primaries
- green & red (yellow)
- red & blue (magenta)
- blue & green (cyan)
- RGB primaries
- CMYK Color Model (Cyan / Magenta / Yellow / Black) – subtractive system (mixing paint or dye – where 95% of color control for film comes from)
- Components of Color
- hue - the color itself – 6 hues: red / orange / yellow / green / blue / violet
- brightness - addition or subtraction of white or black to hue
- saturation - addition or subtraction of the hue's complement to/from that hue
- complement - color opposite the hue on the color wheel, e.g., magenta/green; blue/yellow; cyan/red
- desaturation - moving towards gray: as a complement is added to a hue, the hue desaturates and moves toward gray
Characteristics of Color
- colors saturate at different levels on the gray scale, which runs from "1" (darkest) to "10" (lightest)
- as colors move towards the middle of the gray scale, they become 'grayer'
- Munsell Color System – most accurate representation of characteristics of color: white / cyan / yellow / red / violet / black. NOTE: its shape is irregular because yellow saturates higher on the gray scale and violet saturates lower
- on film it is almost impossible to capture several different deeply saturated colors, e.g., if you go for a saturated yellow, you can only get a very desaturated blue, etc.
- on film, it is impossible to have colors of equal saturation and equal brightness (in this case, saturation and brightness are completely unrelated)
- eye moves to saturated color first (when other colors are desaturated)
- Color Structure Enhances Dramatic Structure
- for a film, development of color can be structured and graphed – like story, space, and line – to help heighten the film's total effect
- "color scripts" - used to schematize color [hue, brightness, saturation] for each shot/ scene/ sequence
- Color Interaction – what happens when one color is placed near another color:
- Two basic principles
- when complementary colors are placed next to one another, they intensify (red next to green: red looks redder, green looks greener)
- when analogous colors (those next to each other on color wheel) are placed next to each other, they separate (red appears more orange; magenta appears more violet; etc.)
- a black stripe or a white stripe makes color/hue look very different
- violet – can be either warm (red component) or cool (blue component)
- Two basic principles
- Contrast and Affinity in Relation to Color
- contrast or affinity of hue (6 hues)
- within a shot
- shot to shot
- maximum contrast: any pair of complementary colors, e.g., yellow & violet
- maximum affinity: analogous colors, e.g., red & orange
- contrast or affinity of brightness (color) or tone (black & white)
- within a shot
- shot to shot
- maximum contrast: pink & maroon; yellow & violet
- maximum affinity: pastel blue & pink (both have hue with great deal of white)
- contrast or affinity of saturation
- within a shot
- shot to shot
- maximum contrast: super-saturated red & gray
- maximum affinity: gray blue & gray green; gray-green & greenish gray
- contrast or affinity of warm (yellow, orange, red, red-violet) and cool (blue, green, blue-violet)
- within a shot
- shot to shot
- maximum contrast: red & blue; orange & blue
- maximum affinity: green & blue
- contrast or affinity of extension (the amount of area that a color occupies: Different colors have different visual weights, and visual weight corresponds to attention – weight depends on amount of white or black in hue – as a color gets more white into it, it has less visual weight, as a color gets more black into it, it has more visual weight: This allows us to throw colors into and out of balance with each other.)
- within a shot
- shot to shot
- balanced weight: red & green
- unbalanced weight: blue (heavier) & orange (lighter)
- extremely unbalanced weight: violet (very heavy) & yellow (very light)
- simultaneous contrast – contrast or affinity within a singleshot
- susceptible color – color which can be shoved around the color scale in as many ways as we want regarding hue, brightness, saturation), e.g., violet gray, brown, etc.
- in film, we can manipulate color a great deal, e.g., "bluish" or "greenish" or "orangish" skin tones (audience has bad color memory; eyes "dial in" complement to see "white")
- successive contrast – one, then another (hue, brightness, saturation)
- contrast or affinity of hue (6 hues)
- Visual Economy in Relation to Color
- how few colors can we use to give the audience the impression that they are looking at more colors than they actually are?
- we can take a very limited palette (say, 3 or 4 colors), and by using contrast or affinity of extension, give a sense of an extraordinary variety of color
- How to Control Color
- light (for exposure)
- natural light (the sun)
- sunlight more pink in morning
- sunlight more blue at midday (and on clear days)
- sunlight more red at dusk
- artificial light (3200o K) – also colored gels over lights
- natural light (the sun)
- control the color palette, i.e., color of objects filmed
- filters (filter absorbs its compementary color so it can only take away color)
- film stocks
- slower film – needs more light for exposure; best color; widest range of colors (brightest & darkest)
- high speed/fast film – needs less light; colors desaturated; lose detail
- in original photography
- overexposing – desaturates colors
- underexposing slightly – saturates colors
- color timing in the laboratory (for each shot) – to smoothe out differences between shots
- force developing/pushing – desaturates color; more grain
- post-flashing – desaturates color; more detail in shadows
- prints – at each of these stages can make lighter or darker; can shift the color, i.e., bluer or greener
- camera original/ negative
- work print
- interpositive ("P.")
- release prints
- digital visual effects offer enormous flexibility in controling color
- light (for exposure)
I. Movement
- Types of Movement
- horizontal
- vertical
- diagonal
- movement changes composition
- movement is always based on its relation to the frameline
- relation of object and background
- maximum contrast of direction or movement: horizontal & vertical
- maximum affinity of direction or movement: 2 horizontals or 2 verticals
- dynamic movement
- maximum contrast: horizontal & diagonal
- any background can be reduced to a series of lines
- most dynamic arrangement of linear background & linear foreground:
- diagonal on diagonal
- parallel diagonals
- horizontal on vertical
- vertical on vertical
- vertical on horizontal
- horizontal on horizontal
- continuum of motion (movement catches eye first; we can only look at one point; continuum of motion asks where is audience's point of attention from shot to shot, so that matching of eye placement, i.e., keeping audience's attention, can be maintained)
- discontinuum of motion (contrast of eye placement from shot to shot – disorienting, can be violent; e.g., use during fight or drunken scene)
J. Time, Editing & Rhythm [DRAFT]
- time/ time conventions/ timing & rhythm – how does the film move, and how does that (emotionally) move us?
- editing
- rhythm in film – compare to rhythm in other visual arts (dynamics of form in painting and photography, sculpture, architecture), music, literature (flow of words)
top || Dramatics | Visuals | Sound | Theme
Part 3. Sound — What Do We Hear? [DRAFT]
- BASICS – Three Pairs of Sound Terms (after Kracauer and Reisz):
- Related to Sound's Source
- actual sound - emanates from within the scene itself, e.g., dialogue, music from a radio, etc.
- commentative sound - heard only by the audience, e.g., voice-over narration, musical scoring
- Juxtaposition of Audial & Visual Images
- synchronous sound - we simultaneously see and hear the source, e.g., dog barking
- asynchronmous sound - either sound heard but source unseen (off-screen actor or animal) *or* sound not heard but source seen (person talking inside a phone booth but we do not hear what's being said)
- Meangingful Juxtaposition
- parallel sound - audial image matches visuals in emotional content
- contrapuntal sound - audial image is in contrast to visuals in emotional content, creating a complex interplay
- Related to Sound's Source
- sound rhythm in film
- synchronous sound vs. asynchronous sound
- "realistic" vs. "stylized"
- dialogue
- clear vs. overlapping (e.g., Altman)
- voice-over narration
- sound effects, including "noise"
- music
- type(s) of sound to use depends on the film's goal
top || Dramatics | Visuals | Sound | Theme
Part 4. Theme — What Do We Think? [DRAFT]
How do all of these dramatic/visual/aural elements combine to form, and even explore, a point of view, i.e., an attitude toward – or ideas about – the action (ethics), the social milieu (politics), the audience – including the filmmaker (sociology), and sometimes the nature of the medium itself (aesthetics)? At its most basic level, a film's characters and their actions embody ideas, even as the visual/aural style modifies – comments on – those ideas. Cinema can represent the full range of ideas, from primal "good" versus "bad" (countless films) to the politically-charged (Godard's in-your-face leftist perspective is just one example) to the most subtle explorations of how people connect with themselves, each other, and their society (Ozu, Bergman, Rohmer). These are some of the concepts which this section, when completed, will explore.
top || Dramatics | Visuals | Sound | Theme
Recommended Books
Among many books on film, these are three that I find indispensable.
- Best Guide to Film: James Monaco's How to Read a Film offers concise discussions of film history, technology, theory, and more.
- On Film Narrative: Syd Field's Screenplay clarifies the mysteries of narrative structure – also the only "how to" screenwriting guide I recommend.
- Study of Visual Style: Rudolph Arnheim's Art and Visual Perception is a revelation for understanding visual structures. Although focused on painting, its principles apply equally to film. Densely-written, but worth the effort.
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